The Fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes or salpinges (singular salpinx) are uterine appendages. The name comes from the Catholic priest and anatomist Gabriele Falloppio for whom other anatomical structures are also named. Inside the Fallopian tubes there are hair-like Fallopian cilia which carry the fertilized egg from the ovaries of female mammals to the uterus, via the uterotubal junction. This tubal tissue is ciliated simple columnar epithelium. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the equivalent of a Fallopian tube is an oviduct. Its different segments are  the infundibulum with its associated fimbriae near the ovary, the ampullary region that represents the major portion of the lateral tube, the isthmus the visible medial third segment which is the narrower part of the tube that links to the uterus, and the interstitial (also known as intramural) part that transverses the uterine musculature. The ostium is the point where the tubal canal meets the peritoneal cavity, while the uterine opening of the fallopian tube is the entrance into the uterine cavity, the uterotubal junction

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Cancer that forms in the tissue covering the ovary (one of a pair of female reproductive glands in which eggs are made). Most ovarian cancers are epithelial ovarian cancers. Fallopian tube cancer and primary peritoneal cancer are similar to epithelial ovarian cancer and are staged and treated the same way.  High-grade serous ovarian cancer (sometimes known as high-grade serous carcinoma) is the most common form of epithelial ovarian cancer, accounting for over six of every 10 cases of epithelial ovarian cancer. A small percentage of ovarian cancers are caused by gene mutations you inherit from your parents. The genes known to increase the risk of ovarian cancer are called breast cancer gene 1 (BRCA1) and breast cancer gene 2 (BRCA2).

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For cervical cancer patients, there are two types of metastasis: hematogenous metastasis and lymphatic metastasis. Regarding cervical carcinoma metastatic to the lungs, for large solitary pulmonary metastatic tumors, surgery combined with chemotherapy (plus RT for stage IVB) is able to provide a better prognosis. In the majority of cases, metastatic cervical cancer is not curable. However, for some patients who present with recurrent disease in the pelvis (locoregional recurrence) or with limited distant metastatic disease, surgical treatment is potentially curative. The most common places for cervical cancer to spread is to the lymph nodes, liver, lungs and bones.

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Women with cervical cancer limited to the uterus have early-stage disease. Treatment options for these women include modified radical hysterectomy, fertility-sparing surgery, or primary radiation therapy (RT) with or without chemotherapy. The choice of therapy depends on tumor and patient factors. The approach to women with early-stage cervical cancers is reviewed here. Treatment of more advanced disease and specific issues regarding the management of cervical adenocarcinomas and small cell cancers are reviewed elsewhere. If a Pap test shows abnormal cells, a biopsy is done to look for cancer cells. A biopsy involves removing a small piece of tissue from the cervix. The biopsy is performed during an office visit using a procedure called colposcopy. The colposcope (similar to a large magnifying lens) magnifies the view of the cervix. This allows the clinician to better see the location, extent, and degree of cervical abnormalities that may not be visible with the naked eye alone

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Cervical cancer encompasses several histologic types, of which squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the most common. The incidence of invasive cervical adenocarcinoma and its variants has increased dramatically over the past few decades; this cell type now accounts for about 25 percent of all invasive cervical cancers diagnosed in the United States (US). Neuroendocrine (predominantly small cell poorly differentiated) carcinomas and other rare cell types together comprise 3 to 5 percent of all cases. Adenocarcinoma. Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that starts in the gland cells that produce mucus. The cervix has glandular cells scattered along the inside of the passage that runs from the cervix to the womb (the endocervical canal).

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Cervical cancer is clinically staged, but assessment of pelvic and paraaortic lymph nodes is performed with lymphadenectomy and/or imaging. The surgical and oncologic goals of the lymph node dissection are to define the extent of disease and, thereby, to guide further treatment. Pelvic and paraaortic lymph node evaluation is a major component of the surgical staging procedure for several gynecologic malignancies, including endometrial and ovarian carcinoma. Cervical cancer is clinically staged, but assessment of pelvic and paraaortic lymph nodes is performed with lymphadenectomy and/or imaging. The surgical and oncologic goals of the lymph node dissection are to define the extent of disease and, thereby, to guide further treatment. Lymphadenectomy may also have a therapeutic goal in conditions in which removing nodes harboring metastatic disease improves survival.

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Invasive cervical cancer is a cancer that has spread from the surface of the cervix to tissue deeper in the cervix or to other parts of the body. The cervix is the lower part of the uterus, where it extends into the vagina. Cancer of the uterine cervix affects over 12,000 women each year in the U.S. Most cases of cervical cancer are actually caused by an infectious agent, the human papillomavirus (HPV). It is highly curable when detected early enough. Women diagnosed with early invasive cervical cancer can usually be cured with effective treatment. Treatment options include surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy; these may be used in combination.

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It is the most common sexually transmitted disease (STD), with millions of Americans currently infected. HPV can infect both men and women. Most people with HPV don’t know they have it and never get any symptoms or health problems. There are many different types of HPV. Some types do cause health problems. HPV infections are usually grouped as low-risk or high-risk HPV. Low-Risk HPV can cause warts on the anus and genital area, and sometimes the mouth. Other low-risk HPV infections can cause warts on arms, hands, feet, or chest. HPV warts do not cause serious health problems. They may go away on their own, or a health care provider may remove them in a minor in-office procedure. Most high-risk HPV infections do not cause any symptoms and will go away within a year or two. But some high-risk HPV infections can last for years. These long-lasting infections can lead to cancer. HPV is the cause of most cervical cancers. Long-lasting HPV may also cause other cancers, including those of the anus, vagina, penis, mouth, and throat. An HPV test looks for high-risk HPV in women. Health care providers can usually diagnose low-risk HPV by visually examining the warts. So no testing is needed. While men can be infected with HPV, there is no test available for men. Most men with HPV recover from the infection without any symptoms. Other names: genital human papillomavirus, high risk HPV, HPV DNA, HPV RNA

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Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) are medications that prevent pregnancy. They are one method of birth control. Oral contraceptives are hormonal preparations that may contain combinations of the hormones estrogen and progestin or progestin alone. Combinations of estrogen and progestin prevent pregnancy by inhibiting the release of the hormones luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the pituitary gland in the brain. LH and FSH play key roles in the development of the egg and preparation of the lining of the uterus for implantation of the embryo. Progestin also makes the uterine mucus that surrounds the egg more difficult for sperm to penetrate and, therefore, for fertilization to take place. In some women, progestin inhibits ovulation (release of the egg).

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Cervical cytology by Pap smear is a simple, safe and effective test to detect premalignant and malignant lesions of cervix at an early stage, and thus help the clinicians in early and more efficient management of the patients. Cytology is the examination of cells from the body under a microscope. In a urine cytology exam, a doctor looks at cells collected from a urine specimen to see how they look and function. The test commonly checks for infection, inflammatory disease of the urinary tract, cancer, or precancerous conditions. Cervical cytology by Papanicolaou (Pap) smears is an effective means of screening for cervical premalignant and malignant conditions. Cervical intra-epithelial neoplasia (CIN) and cervical cancer remain important health problems for women worldwide.

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