A dysgerminoma is a type of germ cell tumor; it usually is malignant and usually occurs in the ovary. A tumor of the identical histology but not occurring in the ovary may be described by an alternate name: seminoma in the testis or germinoma in the central nervous system or other parts of the body. The 3 major types of ovarian tumors are epithelial, sex cord, and germ cell. Epithelial cell tumors represent the majority of all ovarian neoplasms (82%). Conversely, germ cell tumors (GCTs) are rare, comprising approximately 20% of all ovarian tumors, both benign and malignant. Approximately 3-5% of ovarian GCTs are malignant. The most commonly occurring GCT is the dysgerminoma, which accounts for approximately 2% of all ovarian cancers.

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Cephalopelvic disproportion (CPD) is a pregnancy complication in which there is a size mismatch between the mother’s pelvis and the fetus’ head. The baby’s head is proportionally too large or the mother’s pelvis is too small to easily allow the baby to fit through the pelvic opening. This can make vaginal delivery dangerous or impossible. If an attempted vaginal delivery is unsuccessful, doctors should quickly move onto a C-section. If they fail to do this, prolonged/obstructed labor from CPD may result in birth injuries such as hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) and cerebral palsy (CP). Some women are more likely to have a pregnancy with cephalopelvic disproportion than others. Risk factors include: Infertility treatment, Maternal obesity, Previous cesarean delivery, Polyhydramnios, Gestational diabetes, Postmaturity or gestational age over 41 weeks.

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The decidua is the modified mucosal lining of the uterus known as the endometrium that forms in preparation for pregnancy. It is formed in a process called decidualization under the influence of progesterone. Endometrial cells become highly characteristic. The placental membrane separates maternal blood from fetal blood. The fetal part of the placenta is known as the chorion. The maternal component of the placenta is known as the decidua basalis.

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Ethinylestradiol (EE) is an estrogen medication which is used widely in birth control pills in combination with progestins. It is also occasionally used as a component of menopausal hormone therapy for the treatment of menopausal symptoms in combination with progestins. A semisynthetic alkylated estradiol with a 17-alpha-ethinyl substitution. It has high estrogenic potency when administered orally and is often used as the estrogenic component in oral contraceptives. Ethinyl estradiol is marketed mostly as a combination oral contraceptive under several brand names such as Alesse, Tri-Cyclen, Triphasil, and Yasmin. The FDA label includes a black box warning that states that combination oral contraceptives should not be used in women over 35 years old who smoke due to the increased risk of serious cardiovascular side effects.

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Egg donation is the process by which a woman, who is usually younger, provides eggs (ova, oocytes) to another person and/or partner for purposes of assisted reproduction so that the recipient of the eggs can have a baby with a partner or using donor sperm. The fertility egg donation process involves retrieving eggs from a woman who has normally functioning ovaries. Following egg retrieval, the eggs are fertilized in the in vitro fertilization (IVF) lab using sperm from the receiving couple’s partner, or in certain situations with donor sperm. Following fertilization in the laboratory and growth of the embryos for either 3 or 5 days, the resulting embryos are transferred to the uterus of the woman who wishes to carry the baby. If a pregnancy is established, the receiving woman becomes the mother carrying the developing baby through the full term of the pregnancy and childbirth – with all the joys of experience that this affords.

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The cervix or cervix uteri is the lower part of the uterus in the human female reproductive system. The cervix is usually 2 to 3 cm long (~1 inch) and roughly cylindrical in shape, which changes during pregnancy. The narrow, central cervical canal runs along its entire length, connecting the uterine cavity and the lumen of the vagina. The opening into the uterus is called the internal os, and the opening into the vagina is called the external os. The lower part of the cervix, known as the vaginal portion of the cervix (or ectocervix), bulges into the top of the vagina. The cervical canal is a passage through which sperm must travel to fertilize an egg cell after sexual intercourse. Several methods of contraception, including cervical caps and cervical diaphragms, aim to block or prevent the passage of sperm through the cervical canal. Cervical mucus is used in several methods of fertility awareness, such as the Creighton model and Billings method, due to its changes in consistency throughout the menstrual period. During vaginal childbirth, the cervix must flatten and dilate to allow the fetus to progress along the birth canal.

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The endocervix (endocervical canal) is a luminal cavity within. the cervix forming a passageway between the external os and the internal os. The upper limit of the endocervical canal called the internal os or isthmus, marks the transition from the endocervix to the endometrium. The inner part of the cervix that forms a canal that connects the vagina to the uterus. The endocervix is lined with cells that make mucus. During a pelvic exam, cells may be scraped from the endocervix. The cells are checked under a microscope for infection, inflammation, and cancer or changes that may become cancer.

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Endometrioma is a type of cyst formed when endometrial tissue (the mucous membrane that makes up the inner layer of the uterine wall) grows in the ovaries. It affects women during the reproductive years and may cause chronic pelvic pain associated with menstruation. Endometriosis can be present in the form of classic implants located on the surface of one or both ovaries but it can also be found deep within them. Deep ovarian endometriosis forms dark fluid-filled cavities that can vary in size known as endometriomas or “chocolate cysts”. The diagnosis of an endometrioma may be suspected based on ultrasound imaging of the pelvis, but the final diagnosis must be based on microscopic examination of the cyst itself.

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Endometritis is inflammation of the inner lining of the uterus (endometrium). Symptoms may include fever, lower abdominal pain, and abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge. It is the most common cause of infection after childbirth. It is also part of spectrum of diseases that make up pelvic inflammatory disease. Endometritis is divided into acute and chronic forms. The acute form is usually from an infection that passes through the cervix as a result of an abortion, during menstruation, following childbirth, or as a result of douching or placement of an IUD. Risk factors for endometritis following delivery include Caesarean section and prolonged rupture of membranes. Chronic endometritis is more common after menopause. The diagnosis may be confirmed by endometrial biopsy. Ultrasound may be useful to verify that there is no retained tissue within the uterus.

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Enterocele is the descending of the small intestine into the lower pelvic cavity. When this occurs, the small intestine pushes on the top part of the vagina, creating a bulge. It is a form of pelvic organ prolapse. Treatment and management of enterocele depends on the severity of the patient’s condition. When the support system which holds pelvic organs in place become distressed, stretched, or torn, it allows pelvic organs to shift into new positions, thus causing a prolapse. Damage to these support systems can be caused by a number of different factors such as: Childbirth – Vaginal delivery causes stress on pelvic organs and support structures. Risk increases with number and size of children delivered vaginally, Surgery, such as a hysterectomy, or radiation treatment in the pelvic area, Menopause – A woman’s ovaries stop producing hormones that regulate her monthly cycle. The hormone estrogen, which helps keep pelvic muscles strong, is in lower supply, Extreme physical activity or lifting of heavy objects, Being overweight, Chronic constipation, Chronic cough (as seen in smokers or asthmatics), Genetic or hereditary factors – One person’s pelvic support system may be naturally weaker than another’s.

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