Fetal growth restriction (FGR), also called intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR, refers to a condition in which a fetus is unable to achieve its genetically determined potential size. This functional definition seeks to identify a population of fetuses at risk for modifiable but otherwise poor outcomes. This definition intentionally excludes of fetuses that are small for gestational age (SGA) but are not pathologically small. SGA is defined as growth at the 10th or less percentile for weight of all fetuses at that gestational age. There are basically two different types of fetal growth restriction:
Symmetric or primary growth restriction is characterized by all internal organs being reduced in size. Symmetric growth restriction accounts for 20% to 25% of all cases of growth restriction.
Asymmetric or secondary growth restriction is characterized by the head and brain being normal in size, but the abdomen is smaller.

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A corpus luteum is a mass of cells that forms in an ovary and is responsible for the production of the hormone progesterone during early pregnancy. The role of the corpus luteum depends on whether or not fertilization occurs. During ovulation, an egg is released from a dominant follicle. Following the release of the egg and subsequent fertilization, the follicle seals itself off and forms what is known as a corpus luteum. This mass of cells helps produce the hormone progesterone during early pregnancy. The corpus luteum will continue to produce progesterone until the fetus is producing adequate levels to sustain the pregnancy, which usually occurs between 7 and 9 weeks of pregnancy. The corpus luteum is the last active stage of an ovarian follicle’s lifecycle. Without it, early pregnancy cannot be maintained. The corpus luteum doesn’t get enough credit for the important roles in plays in pregnancy and the menstrual cycle.

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In women, pelvic pain may be a sign of menstrual cramps, ovulation, or a gastrointestinal issue such as a food intolerance. It can also develop due to a more serious problem. Sometimes, pelvic pain is an indicator of an infection or issue with the reproductive system or other organs in the area. Pelvic pain is a symptom that affects many women and can be caused by a wide variety of conditions and diseases, from endometriosis or fibroids to more serious conditions, like an ectopic pregnancy or cancer. Women typically describe it as a dull ache or pressure that may or may not include sharp pains located anywhere in the abdomen below the navel. The pain may be intermittent or constant and can be accompanied by other symptoms, such as abnormal vaginal bleeding, lower back pain, and vaginal discharge.

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Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), also known as cervical dysplasia, is the abnormal growth of cells on the surface of the cervix that could potentially lead to cervical cancer. More specifically, CIN refers to the potentially precancerous transformation of cells of the cervix. CIN most commonly occurs at the squamocolumnar junction of the cervix, a transitional area between the squamous epithelium of the vagina and the columnar epithelium of the endocervix It can also occur in vaginal walls and vulvar epithelium. CIN is graded on a 1-3 scale, with 3 being the most abnormal. Human papilloma virus (HPV) infection is necessary for the development of CIN, but not all with this infection develop cervical cancer. A large number of women with HPV infection never develop CIN or cervical cancer. Typically, HPV resolves on its own. However, those with an HPV infection that lasts more than 1 or 2 years have a higher risk of developing a higher grade of CIN.

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Endometrial cancer starts when cells in the endometrium (the inner lining of the uterus) start to grow out of control. Cells in nearly any part of the body can become cancer, and can spread to other parts of the body. The uterus is a hollow organ, normally about the size and shape of a medium-sized pear. The uterus is where a fetus grows and develops when a woman is pregnant. It has 2 main parts: The upper part of the uterus is called the body or the corpus. The cervix is the lower end of the uterus that joins it to the vagina. Endometrial cancer (also called endometrial carcinoma) starts in the cells of the inner lining of the uterus (the endometrium). This is the most common type of cancer in the uterus. Endometrial carcinomas can be divided into different types based on how the cells look under the microscope. They include: Adenocarcinoma (most endometrial cancers are a type of adenocarcinoma called endometrioid cancer ), Uterine carcinosarcoma or CS, Squamous cell carcinoma, Small cell carcinoma, Transitional carcinoma Serous carcinoma.

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Overactive bladder (OAB) is a common condition that affects millions of Americans. Overactive bladder isn’t a disease. It’s the name of a group of urinary symptoms. The most common symptom of OAB is a sudden urge to urinate that you can’t control. Some people will leak urine when they feel the urge. Leaking urine is called “incontinence.” Having to go to the bathroom many times during the day and night is another symptom of OAB. Overactive bladder causes a sudden urge to urinate. The urge may be difficult to stop, and overactive bladder may lead to the involuntary loss of urine (urge incontinence). If you have an overactive bladder, you may feel embarrassed, isolate yourself, or limit your work and social life. The good news is that a brief evaluation can determine whether there’s a specific cause for your overactive bladder symptoms.
Symptoms: With an overactive bladder, you may: Feel a sudden urge to urinate that’s difficult to control, Experience urge incontinence — the involuntary loss of urine immediately following an urgent need to urinate, Urinate frequently, usually eight or more times in 24 hours, Awaken two or more times in the night to urinate (nocturia), Although you may be able to get to the toilet in time when you sense an urge to urinate, unexpected frequent urination and nighttime urination can disrupt your life.

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Vaginal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the vagina. Age and being exposed to the drug DES (diethylstilbestrol) before birth affect a woman’s risk of vaginal cancer. Signs and symptoms of vaginal cancer include pain or abnormal vaginal bleeding. The vagina is the canal leading from the cervix (the opening of uterus) to the outside of the body. At birth, a baby passes out of the body through the vagina (also called the birth canal).
Vaginal cancer is not common. There are two main types of vaginal cancer:
Squamous cell carcinoma: Cancer that forms in the thin, flat cells lining the inside of the vagina. Squamous cell vaginal cancer spreads slowly and usually stays near the vagina, but may spread to the lungs, liver, or bone. This is the most common type of vaginal cancer.
Adenocarcinoma: Cancer that begins in glandular cells. Glandular cells in the lining of the vagina make and release fluids such as mucus. Adenocarcinoma is more likely than squamous cell cancer to spread to the lungs and lymph nodes. A rare type of adenocarcinoma is linked to being exposed to diethylstilbestrol (DES) before birth. Adenocarcinomas that are not linked with being exposed to DES are most common in women after menopause.

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Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that occurs in the cells of the cervix – the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. Various strains of the human papillomavirus (HPV), a sexually transmitted infection, play a role in causing most cervical cancer. When exposed to HPV, a woman’s immune system typically prevents the virus from doing harm. In a small group of women, however, the virus survives for years, contributing to the process that causes some cells on the surface of the cervix to become cancer cells. You can reduce your risk of developing cervical cancer by having screening tests and receiving a vaccine that protects against HPV infection. Cervical cancer begins when healthy cells acquire a genetic change (mutation) that causes them to turn into abnormal cells. Healthy cells grow and multiply at a set rate, eventually dying at a set time. Cancer cells grow and multiply out of control, and they don’t die. The accumulating abnormal cells form a mass (tumor). Cancer cells invade nearby tissues and can break off from a tumor to spread (metastasize) elsewhere in the body.

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Abstract:

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) has been widely used to predict a variety of health-related behaviors. Although the TPB is generally well supported, the normative component is a consistently weak predictor of behavioral intentions. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted to test a revised TPB, with the inclusion of descriptive norms as an additional component. Different models were tested to find the optimal combination for predicting intentions. Participants (N = 320) completed measures of attitudes, injunctive and descriptive norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions toward regular sunscreen use. Results support a model with weighted referent-specific injunctive and descriptive norms. It is concluded that young women’s intentions to use sunscreen is driven mainly by descriptive norms, particularly those related to their peers and close friends. Campaigns aimed at increasing sunscreen use among college women should therefore emphasize the prevalence of use among behaviorally relevant referents (e.g., other women at their school, beach-goers).

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Pelvic floor disorders occur only in women and become more common as women age. During their lifetime, about 1 of 11 women needs surgery for a pelvic floor disorder. The pelvic floor is a network of muscles, ligaments, and tissues that act like a hammock to support the organs of the pelvis: the uterus, vagina, bladder, urethra, and rectum. If the muscles become weak or the ligaments or tissues are stretched or damaged, the pelvic organs or small intestine may drop down and protrude into the vagina. If the disorder is severe, the organs may protrude all the way through the opening of the vagina and outside the body. Pelvic floor disorders usually result from a combination of factors. The following factors commonly contribute to development of these disorders: Having a baby, particularly if the baby is delivered vaginally, Being obese, Having an injury, as may occur during hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) or another surgical procedure, Aging, Frequently doing things that increase pressure in the abdomen, such as straining during bowel movements or lifting heavy objects.

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